The rise of the medieval state in Poland in the light of archaeological research: revolutionary origins and rapid growth
Fig. 5. Distribution map of strongholds in Great Poland: 1 - tribal strongholds; 2 - tribal strongholds restored and reused under the first Piast rulers; 3 - Piast strongholds (accorging to: Kurnatowska, "Początki państwa", drought by M. Trzeciecki). |
Recent archaeological research produced a radically different picture of how the medieval state emerged in Poland.[12] An important aspect in this respect is the evidence of wholesale destruction (often by fire) and abandonment on many tribal centers in various regions, but most markedly in Great Poland, Little Poland and Mazovia. In Great Poland, where the state formation process seems to have been most advanced, fortified settlements appeared at different locations in the northeast, away from the old, now abandoned, centers in the southwest.[13] The northwest was indeed the region with the two main centers of the early Piast state, Gniezno and Poznań. The destruction of the earlier tribal centers and their final abandonment coincided in time with a sustained settlement of the central areas under Piast control (Fig. 5). Since this sudden growth of settlement in some areas was accompanied by depopulation in others, it is possible that the process involved massive and, perhaps, forced movements of population. A similar process seems to have been at work in other regions, such as Mazovia, Little Poland and Silesia. In all such cases, new strongholds came into being in the late 900s, which would become important regional centers in subsequent centuries. They were built anew, and characteristically in locations different and away from earlier tribal centers. In some cases, such as Lublin, earlier centers were abandoned for a long time following their destruction by fire, before new towns were erected on their ruins.[14] In other cases, such as Złota near Sandomierz, the change was most dramatic, because the existence of such centers came to an abrupt end after a long period of relative prosperity.[15] So far, a new phase of fortification and habitation on the same site of an earlier tribal town has been evidenced only in Cracow, Kalisz, Szczecin, and Kołobrzeg.
The new dendrochronological data show that the ramparts of Gniezno, the first capital of the Polish state, were built not in the 700s, as previously thought, but between 940 and 1026, namely under the first Piast rulers.[16] The beginnings of many Polish towns are equally to be placed within the second half of the tenth century. Some of the dates obtained by dendrochronological analysis surprisingly match the written evidence. Kołobrzeg was rebuilt in 980, while the rampart of the Castrum minus in Wrocław was erected in ca. 985. The former must be a consequence of Mieszko I's conquest of Pomerania, while the latter may be associated with the incorporation of Silesia within the Piast state. These strongholds thus appear as the direct result of political decisions that turned them into political and administrative centers for the new power.
Fig. 6. Sandomierz (Little Poland) - one of sedes regni principales. Schematic layout of topography in early 11th century: 1 - Castle Hill (stronghold), 2 - Cathedral Hill (fortified suburb), 3 - Gotomianum Hill (fortified suburb), 4 - St. James Hill (non fortified suburb), (source: Buko, "From Great Poland"). |
In Little Poland, Sandomierz, one of the sedes regni principales, offers the best example of association between political decisions and regional centers. No settlement preceded the stronghold erected in the 970s or shortly thereafter, as Sandomierz became a provincial capital (Fig. 6). Recent archaeological research indicates that the erection of this stronghold was accompanied by the re-settlement of a substantial group of population from Great Poland.[17]
But this interpretation does not apply to all known strongholds. So far, three centers on the coast (Wolin, Szczecin and Kołobrzeg) and two centers in the interior (Kalisz and Cracow) produced evidence of a substantially different history. The coastal centers emerged as ports-of-trade in connection with the Baltic trade as indicated by numerous finds of silver hoards. As paradoxical as it may seem and despite the current debate surrounding its Viking origins, Wolin in the ninth century was economically more closely associated with Scandinavia and northwest Europe than with its hinterland in Great Poland.[18] This may explain both the relatively early beginnings of this center and its rapid decline following the rise of the Polish state. By the late tenth century, the Piast strongholds of Szczecin and Kołobrzeg were successfully competing with Wolin for the control of the Baltic trade. The same is true for eastern Pomerania, particularly for Gdańsk, a center built in the late 970s which rapidly eliminated Truso, a previously important emporium in neighboring Prussia.[19]
Fig. 7. Tenth to eleventh-century architectural remains on the Wawel Hill in Cracow: 1- the so-called "rectangular building" (early eleventh century); 2 - chapel (early eleventh century); 3 - the rotunda of Sts. Feliks and Adaukt (ca. 1000); 4 - remains of an apse (early eleventh century); 5 - single-apsed rotunda with baptismal font (early eleventh century); 6 - the so-called "Pre-Romanesque rotunda B" (early eleventh century); 7 - fragment of a Pre-Romanesque wall inside the St. Michael Church; 8 - corner of Pre-Romanesque building (early eleventh century); 9 - the so-called "room with twenty-four posts," the Romanesque palace (mid-eleventh century?); 10 - Romanesque basilica of St. Gereon (late eleventh century); 11 - annex on the eastern side of the palace (twelfth or early thirteenth century); 12 - tower (twelfth century?); 13 - the Cathedral of Prince Herman (ca. 1090-1142); 14 - Romanesque chapel (thirteenth century?); 15 - Romanesque rotunda (eleventh or twelfth century); 16 - Romanesque single-apsed chapel (eleventh or twelfth century); 17 - remains of the Romanesque church of St. Michael (according to: Pianowski, "Sedes regni principales", drought by M. Trzeciecki). |
The written evidence indicates that, after its incorporation into the Přemyslid state, Cracow remained under Bohemian control until the late 900s. However, the architecture of the early medieval monuments excavated on the Wawel Hill (Fig. 7) suggests a significant Piast presence.[20] Finally, the case of Kalisz is particularly interesting. We will examine this case in the broader context of the origins of the first Polish dynasty.
The Piasts: a dynasty of Polanians or foreign origin?
The sudden expansion of the early medieval state by means of military annexation of neighboring regions raises the question of the identity of its founders. The dynastic legend to be found in the chronicle of Gallus Anonymus makes it quite clear that the Piasts were of local, i.e., Great Polish, origin. However, some have claimed a foreign origin for this dynasty on the basis of the famous document known as Dagome iudex, whereby the papacy received Poland as a fief. A Scandinavian origin has been ascribed to the name Dago that appears in this document and early medieval Poland was consequently compared with Kievan Rus', with the Piasts mirroring the Varangian Riurikids as founders of the state.
Despite a considerable number of studies dedicated to this problem, no evidence exists to substantiate this interpretation. It is indeed likely that Mieszko I's retinue of bodyguards included at least some warriors recruited from abroad, as indicated by the tenth-century Andalusian Jewish traveler Ibrahim ibn‑Yakub. Finds of weapons of Scandinavian origin around the royal residence at Ostrów Lednicki and burials of Scandinavian warriors in cemeteries excavated in Great Poland and Pomerania confirm the literary evidence.[21] It was a retinue of professional warriors (druzhina) that secured Mieszko's successful policies of conquest and integration into the new state.
Fig. 8. Kalisz-Zawodzie: the stronghold (early eleventh century) and archeological remains of St. Paul cathedral (twelfth century) built above first wooden church from early eleventh century (source: Archive IAE PAN, Warsaw). |
The revolution that led to the creation of the medieval Polish state originated in Great Poland. It is in this region of Poland that we have the best evidence of dramatic change at the end of the tribal period and of shift of fortified settlement locations. The earliest princely residences were also found in Great Poland, on the island Ostrów Lednicki, in Poznań, the seat of Jordan, the missionary bishop, as well as in Gniezno, the first capital of the Polish state. There is, however, an apparent contradiction: if the Piast state began in Great Poland, why were tribal strongholds in this area equally destroyed? And over what area in Great Poland did the Piasts rule before becoming rulers of Poland? In Great Poland, there is just one old tribal stronghold that escaped destruction: Kalisz. Unlike several other cases in Poland, in Kalisz the Piast stronghold was built on top of the earlier tribal center (Fig. 8). Whether this was just a restoration and rebuilding phase, due to the rising water level of the nearby Prosna River, or perhaps the archaeological evidence should be interpreted in some other terms, the issue is beyond the scope of this paper. The most important point, however, is that Kalisz played a crucial role under the first Piasts. The site produced the unique remains of the earliest wooden church excavated in Poland, which has been dated to the early eleventh century. The presence of this building suggests that this was the site of an important mission and ecclesiastical center. Indeed, during the late twelfth century, Kalisz became the residence of Mieszko III the Old (1177-1179, 1190-1191, and 1198-1201), who was also buried there.[22] In the late 900s, the region witnessed an impressive building program, as a great number of strongholds were erected anew all around Kalisz. Were these strongholds erected in preparation for the annexation of Silesia in 990‑991, or some sort of long‑term investment in the area initially ruled by the Piasts? In other words, is it possible that the southeastern region of Great Poland was the home duchy of the Piasts, the area from which they began building the medieval state of Poland? If so, moving the capital from Kalisz to Gniezno may have been an attempt to reach a compromise between conqueror and conquered. At any rate, recent excavations have shown that prior to the Piast take-over, Gniezno was the site of a pagan sanctuary, the function of which was later transferred to the archbishopric established there after the conversion to Christianity.
[12] Andrzej Buko, Początki państwa polskiego. Pytania-problemy-hipotezy, Światowit 42, (1999), 32-45; Zofia Kurnatowska, Początki Polski, Poznań, 2002.
[13]Zofia Kurnatowska, "Początki państwa i chrześcijaństwa w Polsce w świetle żródeł archeologicznych," in Archeologia Wielkopolska. Osiągnięcia i problemy ochrony zabytków, ed. by Hanna Kočka-Krenz (Poznań, 1998), pp. 91-101.
[14] Andrzej Rozwałka, Lubelskie Wzgórze Staromiejskie w procesie formowania średniowiecznego miasta (Lublin, 1997).
[15] Andrzej Buko, Początki Sandomierza, Warsaw, p. 17.
[16] Tadeusz Sawicki, "Gnieźnieński zespół grodowy w świetle najnowszych badań," in Studia z dziejów cywilizacji. Studia ofiarowane Profesorowi Jerzemu Gąssowskiemu w pięćdziesiątą rocznicę pracy naukowej, ed. by Andrzej Buko (Warsaw, 1998), pp. 207-216.
[17]Buko, Początki Sandomierza, p. 56.
[18]Władysław Łosiński, "Miejsce Pomorza i Wielkopolski w kształtowaniu się gospodarki towarowo-pieniężnej w Polsce wczesnofeudalnej," Slavia Antiqua 37 (1996), 163-180 and "Rola kontaktów ze Skandynawią w dziejach gospodarczych Słowian nadbałtyckich," Przegląd Archeologiczny 45 (1997), 73-86.
[19]Andrzej Zbierski, "Rozwój przestrzenny Gdańska w IX-XIII w.," in Historia Gdańska, ed. by Eugeniusz Cieślak (Gdańsk, 1978), pp. 71-259.
[20]Zbigniew Pianowski, "Sedes regni principales". Wawel i inne rezydencje piastowskie do połowy XIII wieku na tle europejskim (Cracow, 1994).
[21]Michał Kara, "Z badań nad wczesnośredniowiecznymi grobami z uzbrojeniem z terenu Wielkopolski," in Od plemiania do państwa. Słąsk na tle wczesnośredniowiecznej Słowiańszczyny Zachodniej, ed. by Lech Leciejewicz (Wrocław, 1991), pp. 99-118.
[22]Tadeusz Baranowski, "Gród w Kaliszu - badania, odkrycia, interpretacje," in Kalisz wczesnośredniowieczny, ed. by Tadeusz Baranowski (Kalisz, 1998), pp. 39-64.
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 "Distribution map of strongholds in Great Poland: 1 - tribal strongholds; 2 - tribal strongholds restored and reused under the first Piast rulers; 3 - Piast strongholds")
 "Sandomierz (Little Poland) - one of sedes regni principales. Schematic layout of topography in early 11th century: 1 - Castle Hill (stronghold), 2 - Cathedral Hill (fortified suburb), 3 - Gotomianum Hill (fortified suburb), 4 - St. James Hill (non fortified suburb)")
 "Tenth to eleventh-century architectural remains on the Wawel Hill in Cracow")
 "Kalisz-Zawodzie: the stronghold (early eleventh century) and archeological remains of St. Paul cathedral (twelfth century) built above first wooden church from early eleventh century")
